Unit 4: Three Prose Writers and the Idea
of India
S. Radhakrishnan, Nirad C. Chaudhuri, N.
Raghunathan and Raja Rao
A Reflective Blog on K. R. S. Iyengar's
Indian Writing in English
Introduction
Indian Writing in English is rarely just a body of literature about
India. It is, at its most interesting, an attempt to interpret India: to
explain what the country is, what it believes, and what it might become. This
blog looks closely at four writers whom K. R. S. Iyengar places at the heart of
that project. S. Radhakrishnan reads India through religion and philosophy.
Nirad C. Chaudhuri reads it through personal and colonial history. N.
Raghunathan reads it through politics and education. Raja Rao reads it through
metaphysics and myth. Each of them refuses to treat India as a settled fact.
Instead, they treat it as a question that every generation must answer again.
Read together, their writings form five different answers to one large
question: what does India mean? Radhakrishnan's two enquiries show India as a
spiritual and philosophical civilisation; Chaudhuri shows it as a nation shaped
by colonial history and memory; Raghunathan shows it as a democratic and civic
experiment still finding its balance; and Raja Rao shows it as a metaphysical
idea that survives every political and geographical change. This blog takes up
each of these five questions in turn, moving from explanation to critical
evaluation, before drawing the threads together in a concluding synthesis.
Part I — S.
Radhakrishnan and The Hindu View of Life
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) was a philosopher, teacher and
statesman who became independent India's second President after a career spent
explaining Indian thought to the West. He taught at Mysore, Calcutta and
Oxford, and his major philosophical works include Indian Philosophy, An
Idealist View of Life and The Hindu View of Life. In this last book,
Radhakrishnan sets out to defend Hinduism not as a fixed dogma but as a
flexible, experiential way of approaching truth.
Main Point 1: Hinduism
as a Way of Life
Explanation: Radhakrishnan insists that Hinduism cannot be
reduced to a single creed, book or ritual code, the way Semitic religions often
are. It is, in his phrase, a way of life rather than a fixed doctrine, capable
of holding together many philosophies, deities and practices under one
civilisational roof.
Example: A Hindu can be a strict monist, a devotional
theist, or philosophically closer to agnosticism, and still remain within the
tradition, because what unites them is a shared way of seeking rather than a
shared creed.
Main Point 2:
Religious Pluralism
Explanation: For Radhakrishnan, different religions are
different paths climbing the same mountain. He reads the multiplicity of Hindu
sects and philosophies as evidence that truth can be approached from many
directions without any single approach claiming a monopoly on it.
Example: The coexistence of Vedanta, Bhakti
devotionalism and Tantric practice within Hinduism becomes, for him, a working
model of how Islam, Christianity and Buddhism might also be read as parallel
paths rather than rivals.
Main Point 3:
Experience over Dogma
Explanation: Radhakrishnan repeatedly privileges direct
spiritual intuition, what he calls anubhava, over merely intellectual or
scriptural assent. Religion, in his account, begins in experience and only
afterwards hardens into theology and ritual.
Example: He compares the mystic's insight to the
scientist's flash of intuition, arguing that both involve a kind of knowing
that outruns step by step logical proof, though it can later be tested and
refined by reason.
Main Point 4: Brahman
and Ultimate Reality
Explanation: Following the Upanishadic and Advaita Vedanta
tradition, Radhakrishnan describes ultimate reality, Brahman, as the ground of
all existence, with the individual self, or Atman, essentially continuous with
it rather than separate from it.
Example: The many gods of popular Hindu worship are, on
this reading, symbolic approaches to a single Absolute, much as different
windows let light into the same room.
Main Point 5:
Tolerance and Accommodation
Explanation: He characterises Hinduism as assimilative
rather than exclusive, absorbing new deities, cults and reform movements over
centuries instead of expelling them as heresies.
Example: The historical accommodation of Buddhism,
Jainism and later Bhakti and reform movements within the wider Hindu fold
illustrates this absorptive tendency that Radhakrishnan treats as a
civilisational strength.
Main Point 6: Dharma
and Ethical Life
Explanation: Spiritual experience, for Radhakrishnan, is
never separated from ethical responsibility. Dharma binds the individual's
inner realisation to duties toward family, society and the wider world.
Example: He warns that mystical concentration on the
self carries a danger of neglecting social ties, and argues that genuine
realisation must express itself in ethical action rather than withdrawal.
Main Point 7: Hinduism
and Modernity
Explanation: Radhakrishnan does not present Hinduism as a
museum piece. He reinterprets Vedanta for a scientific, pluralistic modern age,
placing intuition alongside, not against, rational and empirical enquiry.
Example: His argument that scientific discovery itself
often depends on intuitive leaps, citing mathematicians and scientists such as
Poincare and Faraday, is his attempt to show that ancient insight and modern
reason are compatible rather than opposed.
Critical Evaluation
Radhakrishnan's picture of Hinduism has not gone unquestioned. Critics
ask whether his emphasis on a philosophical, Vedanta-centred Hinduism idealises
a religion that is, on the ground, far more plural, ritual-heavy and socially
stratified than his account allows. His stress on unity can understate real
internal differences of caste, sect and competing philosophical schools, some
of which explicitly reject Advaita monism. There is also a historical
dimension: much of his writing responds directly to Christian missionary
criticism of Hinduism as primitive or polytheistic, so his defence is partly an
act of counter-persuasion aimed at a Western audience, not a neutral
description written for Hindus alone. Even so, his insistence that religious
truth can be approached through more than one path remains a valuable resource
for thinking about religious pluralism and interfaith dialogue in a religiously
diverse country.
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🖼 IMAGE INSERT Suggested image: Portrait of Dr
S. Radhakrishnan in academic or presidential dress Should show: Radhakrishnan as philosopher-statesman, ideally
seated with books or in academic robes Why relevant: Visually anchors the section on his
philosophical and public life before the discussion of his ideas begins Placement: Immediately after the introductory paragraph of
Part I |
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▶ YOUTUBE VIDEO INSERT Video Title: Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan and the Idea of Hinduism Channel: A university philosophy or comparative religion
channel (search: Radhakrishnan Hindu View of Life lecture) Link: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=S+Radhakrishnan+Hindu+View+of+Life+lecture Approx. Length: 10-15 minutes Why relevant: A lecture-style explainer situates
Radhakrishnan's arguments about pluralism and intuition within the wider
history of Indian philosophy, reinforcing Main Points 2 and 3 above Placement: After the discussion of Main Point 3 (Experience
over Dogma) |
Part II — The
Philosophy of S. Radhakrishnan and Its Contemporary Relevance
Radhakrishnan's reading of Hinduism belongs to a larger philosophical
system. Where Part I asked what he believed about Hindu religion specifically,
this section asks what he believed about reality, knowledge and human life in
general, and whether any of that still matters today.
1. Idealism
Radhakrishnan holds that reality is fundamentally spiritual rather than
material: matter, mind and the moral order are all, at base, expressions of one
underlying spiritual principle.
2. The Individual and
the Absolute
The individual self is not a fragment cut off from ultimate reality but
is continuous with it, so that self-knowledge and knowledge of the Absolute
are, at the deepest level, the same enquiry.
3. Intuition and
Spiritual Experience
Reason alone, he argues, cannot exhaust reality; intuition supplies an
integrative kind of knowing that reason can later test and articulate but not
originally produce.
4. Religion and Human
Unity
Properly understood, religion should draw human beings together around a
shared search for truth, not divide them into competing camps defending rival
dogmas.
5. East and West
Much of Radhakrishnan's career was spent building a dialogue between
Indian philosophical traditions and Western thought, translating Vedanta into
terms a European academic audience could engage with seriously.
6. Spiritual Humanism
Spirituality, for him, is not otherworldly escape but a resource for
ethical living: compassion, self-discipline and social responsibility flow from
genuine spiritual insight.
7. Education
Radhakrishnan famously argued that education must combine intellectual
training with the refinement of the heart and the discipline of the spirit,
aiming at character and not examination results alone.
Are Radhakrishnan's Ideas Relevant Today?
Yes, but with critical qualifications. His philosophy speaks directly to
several live concerns:
•
Religious pluralism and interfaith dialogue: his model
of many paths to one truth offers a vocabulary for managing religious diversity
without demanding uniformity.
•
Communal tension and secularism: his insistence that
genuine religion unites rather than divides is often invoked, explicitly or
not, in debates about communal harmony.
•
Moral and value education: his call for character
formation alongside intellectual training resonates with current concern that
examination-driven schooling neglects ethics and empathy.
•
Technology versus human values: as automation and
artificial intelligence reshape work and attention, his warning against
reducing human beings to instruments of efficiency gains new force.
•
East-West cultural dialogue: in a globalised world, his
effort to make Indian thought legible to Western audiences anticipates today's
cross-cultural academic and diplomatic exchange.
A necessary caution follows. Philosophical idealism, however humane, can
appear thin when set against material inequality, caste discrimination, gender
injustice and institutional failure. Telling a hungry or discriminated-against
citizen that all religions point to one truth does little to redistribute land,
secure equal wages or end untouchability. Radhakrishnan's strength lies in
ethics and outlook; it is not a substitute for political and economic reform.
His philosophy remains valuable chiefly as a moral supplement to, not a
replacement for, structural change in contemporary India.
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🖼 IMAGE INSERT Suggested image: Cover or title
page of An Idealist View of Life Should show: The book cover or an archival photograph of
Radhakrishnan lecturing at Oxford Why relevant: Connects the abstract philosophical
discussion in Part II to a concrete, citable text Placement: After the seven numbered philosophical ideas,
before the 'Are Radhakrishnan's Ideas Relevant Today?' subsection |
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▶ YOUTUBE VIDEO INSERT Video Title: An Idealist
View of Life — Understanding Radhakrishnan's Philosophy Channel: A recognised philosophy education channel or
university department channel Link: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Radhakrishnan+idealism+philosophy+explained Approx. Length: 8-12 minutes Why relevant: Clarifies the technical vocabulary of
idealism and intuition before the blog applies these ideas to contemporary
examples Placement: Immediately before the 'Are Radhakrishnan's Ideas
Relevant Today?' subsection |
Part III —
Nirad C. Chaudhuri: Autobiography as National History
Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1897-1999) published The Autobiography of an Unknown
Indian in 1951, at the age of fifty-three. Chaudhuri himself closes the book by
describing it as more of a national than a personal history, a paradox worth
pausing over: how can an autobiography, the most private of literary forms,
also function as a history of a nation?
“It
is more of a national than personal history.”
— Nirad C. Chaudhuri, closing words of
The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian
1. The
Individual as a Historical Witness
Chaudhuri treats his own mental and
intellectual growth as a case study in how colonial India itself was formed.
His personal recollections become evidence for larger historical claims about
education, politics and culture.
His account of failing the M.A. examination in
history becomes, in his hands, a comment on the colonial education system
itself, not merely a private disappointment.
2. Colonial
India
The book documents British institutions,
administration and the texture of colonial rule in Bengal as lived experience
rather than abstract policy, giving readers a ground-level view of empire.
His descriptions of Calcutta's colonial
society, from missions to the houses of the English and Bengali middle classes,
place the reader inside the daily machinery of colonial rule.
3. Education and Intellectual Formation
Chaudhuri credits museums and libraries, more
than formal schooling, for shaping his mind, and traces how a Western-style
education pulled him toward, and later away from, an uncomplicated admiration
of Britain.
His disappointment with formal school
teaching, alongside his self-directed reading, illustrates the uneven and
improvised character of colonial-era intellectual formation.
4. Bengal
as Microcosm
Kishoreganj and Calcutta stand in for a wider
India undergoing transformation, so that Chaudhuri's regional experience
becomes representative of a national process.
The book's four-part structure moves the
narrative from a small mofussil town to the imperial capital, tracing a journey
that mirrors India's own movement from tradition toward colonial modernity.
5. National
History through Personal Memory
Political and cultural history enters the book
through family life, customs, festivals, and generational conflict rather than
through official documents, so memory itself becomes an archive.
His account of the rise of Gandhian politics
and his own ambivalence toward it shows how a private observer's memory can
carry the weight of national political history.
6. Colonial
Modernity
Chaudhuri's attitude toward the West is
famously double-edged, admiring British civilisation's discipline and
achievements while resenting colonial rule's effects on Indian society and
self-respect.
His controversial dedication of the book to
the British Empire, honouring what he saw as its civilising contribution while
criticising colonial subjects' treatment, captures this tension exactly.
7. The
'Unknown Indian'
The title's irony is central: an intensely
individual voice claims to speak for an entire unnamed generation of
colonial-era Indians shaped by the same historical forces.
By calling himself unknown, Chaudhuri
paradoxically claims representative status, suggesting that his particular
formation was, in its essentials, shared by many of his contemporaries.
Critical Evaluation
Several questions complicate any simple acceptance of Chaudhuri's own framing. Is this really an autobiography if its author insists it is national rather than personal history? Where exactly does privatememory end and public history begin, given that memory is always selective and coloured by the rememberer's later opinions? Chaudhuri's well-known admiration for British civilisation strikes many readers, then and now, as politically uncomfortable, especially given his sweeping and pessimistic judgments about India's own capacity for self-renewal. No autobiography, however documentary in ambition, can offer a fully objective national history, since memory reshapes the past even as it claims to record it. A useful comparison is Salman Rushdie's Midnight's Children, where Saleem Sinai's fractured, admittedly unreliable memory is offered self-consciously as national allegory; Chaudhuri, writing decades earlier and in a realist rather than magical-realist mode, makes a similar claim with far greater sincerity and far less irony. Despite these tensions, the book endures precisely because Chaudhuri's intellectual and emotional development cannot be separated from India's own historical transformation under colonial rule.
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🖼 IMAGE INSERT Suggested image: Portrait of
Nirad C. Chaudhuri and the original cover of The Autobiography of an Unknown
Indian Should show: Chaudhuri in his later years, alongside the book's
cover art Why relevant: Grounds the discussion of a famously
controversial book in its physical, citable object Placement: After the introductory paragraph of Part III,
before the numbered main points |
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▶ YOUTUBE VIDEO INSERT Video Title: Nirad C.
Chaudhuri and the Autobiography of an Unknown Indian Channel: A literature department or Indian Writing in
English course channel Approx. Length: 10-15 minutes Why relevant: Explains the book's structure and the
controversy around Chaudhuri's dedication to the British Empire, useful
background for the Critical Evaluation subsection Placement: Just before the Critical Evaluation subsection |
Part IV — N.
Raghunathan: Indian Politics and Education
N. Raghunathan (died 1982), who wrote under the pen name Vighneswara, was
for thirty-one years an edit writer for The Hindu and a regular contributor to
Swatantra and Swarajya, where his weekly Sotto Voce column was widely read.
Trained in English and Sanskrit literature, he combined a journalist's
engagement with contemporary politics and a storyteller's eye for social
detail, most visible in his Tamil short fiction about the decline of the old
agraharam social order under the pressure of modernity.
A. N. Raghunathan on Indian Politics
As a long-serving political commentator, Raghunathan's writing reflects a close, day-to-day engagement with the workings of Indian democracy: the conduct of political leadership, theresponsibilities of public life, and the gap that often opens between democratic ideals and everyday political practice. His journalism repeatedly returns to questions of political morality, asking what citizens and leaders owe one another and how nationalism, once a unifying force during the independence movement, could be sustained as a constructive value in a newly self-governing nation.
Read alongside contemporary India, these concerns remain strikingly
current. Electoral democracy continues to wrestle with the balance between
genuine political participation and low or uneven voter engagement,
particularly among the young. Political polarisation, corruption and demands
for public accountability echo the same anxieties about political morality that
a career political commentator like Raghunathan would have tracked column by
column. His journalistic instinct, that democracy is judged less by its formal
structures than by the everyday conduct of its citizens and leaders, remains a
useful lens for assessing Indian political life today.
B. N. Raghunathan on Education
Raghunathan's broader intellectual formation in English and Sanskrit
literature reflects a conviction, common among his generation of
writer-commentators, that education exists to form character and responsible
citizenship, not merely to produce employable graduates. Education in this view
underwrites democracy itself: a citizenry capable of independent judgment,
moral responsibility and civic participation is what keeps democratic
institutions honest.
Why does this matter today?
•
Examination-oriented schooling that rewards
memorisation can crowd out the critical thinking democratic citizenship
requires.
•
Employability-focused education, while necessary, risks
neglecting value education and civic responsibility.
•
Digital education and the spread of misinformation make
civic and media literacy more urgent than ever.
•
University education still carries the older
responsibility of producing socially responsible citizens, not only trained
professionals.
Raghunathan's implicit argument, that the quality of a democracy depends
on the quality of the education producing its citizens, ties his political and
educational concerns together. A politically engaged citizenry and a genuinely
civic-minded education system are, on this reading, two faces of the same
project.
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🖼 IMAGE INSERT Suggested image: Photograph of
N. Raghunathan or an archival page from The Hindu's editorial section Should show: Raghunathan as journalist, or a period photograph
of The Hindu's newsroom Why relevant: Situates a lesser-known writer within
the concrete world of Indian journalism and public commentary Placement: After the introductory paragraph of Part IV |
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▶ YOUTUBE VIDEO INSERT Video Title: The Role of the
Editorial Writer in Indian Democracy Channel: An Indian journalism history or media studies
channel Link: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=history+of+editorial+writing+The+Hindu+newspaper Approx. Length: 8-10 minutes Why relevant: Provides context on the tradition of
Indian editorial journalism that shaped commentators like Raghunathan,
supporting the discussion of political morality and civic responsibility Placement: After subsection A, before subsection B |
Part V — Raja
Rao: ‘India Is an Idea, a Metaphysic’
Raja Rao (1908-2006) is among the most philosophically ambitious of
Indian English novelists, best known for Kanthapura and The Serpent and the
Rope. His claim that India is not a country but an idea, a metaphysic, should
not be read as a denial of India's geographical or political existence. It is
instead a claim about what makes India cohere as a civilisation: not borders or
government, but a shared philosophical imagination.
1. India
Beyond Geography
Raja Rao treats India primarily as a
civilisational and spiritual consciousness that predates, and will outlast, any
particular political arrangement or map.
The India of the Vedas, the epics and
classical philosophy existed long before the modern nation-state, and Raja
Rao's claim insists that this older identity still underlies the political one.
2. Metaphysics
By 'metaphysic' Raja Rao means a framework for
thinking about self, reality, truth and liberation, an underlying philosophical
grammar that shapes how Indians experience the world.
Concepts such as maya (illusion), moksha
(liberation) and the unity of Atman and Brahman function, in his account, as
India's shared metaphysical vocabulary, cutting across region and language.
3. Myth and
Tradition
Myths, epics and inherited stories are not
decoration for Raja Rao; they are the living material through which ordinary
people access and transmit this metaphysical consciousness.
In Kanthapura, village storytelling blends the
Ramayana and Puranic myth with the Gandhian freedom movement, so that
contemporary politics is narrated in a mythic register.
4. Raja
Rao's Kanthapura
Kanthapura fictionalises a South Indian
village's awakening to Gandhian nationalism, narrated in the oral, rhythmic
voice of a village grandmother, so that Gandhi himself becomes a figure of
near-mythic stature.
The novel's famous preface compares its
structure to the Indian sthala-purana, the traditional legend of a place,
explicitly framing modern nationalism within an ancient storytelling form.
5. The
Serpent and the Rope
This later, more philosophically dense novel
follows an East-West marriage and spiritual quest structured around Advaita
non-dualism, using the serpent-and-rope metaphor for the difference between
illusion and reality.
The protagonist Ramaswamy's search for truth
across France and India dramatises the same metaphysical enquiry Raja Rao
attributes to India as a civilisation: the effort to see through illusion to
underlying unity.
6. Indian
English as a Cultural Medium
Raja Rao argued famously that Indian writers
in English must bend the language to carry Indian rhythms of thought and speech
rather than simply imitate English literary convention.
Kanthapura's long, breathless, orally
structured sentences deliberately imitate Kannada village storytelling cadences
within English syntax.
7. Unity in
Diversity
The idea of India as metaphysic is, for Raja
Rao, spacious enough to hold linguistic, regional and religious diversity
together, because the unity he proposes is philosophical rather than
administrative or linguistic.
A Tamil, a Bengali and a Punjabi speaker,
otherwise divided by language and custom, can still share the same underlying
metaphysical assumptions about self and reality that Raja Rao calls
specifically Indian.
Critical Perspective
Raja Rao's metaphysical India should not be romanticised uncritically.
Treating India primarily as a spiritual civilisation risks overlooking material
inequality, caste oppression and gender injustice that no amount of
philosophical unity resolves. His vocabulary of Atman, Brahman and Advaita
draws heavily on Sanskritic and broadly Hindu philosophical traditions, which
raises the question of whether 'the idea of India' quietly narrows into a Hindu
idea of India, sidelining Islamic, Christian, tribal and other traditions
equally native to the subcontinent. It can also seem to float above the messy
realities of modern political life, offering philosophical consolation rather
than political analysis. Even with these limitations, the concept remains
powerful, because it offers a way of imagining Indian identity that survives
partition, political change and regional diversity without collapsing into any
single administrative or linguistic definition.
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🖼 IMAGE INSERT Suggested image: Cover of
Kanthapura and a portrait of Raja Rao Should show: The 1938 first edition cover or a later reissue,
alongside an author photograph Why relevant: Anchors the metaphysical argument in
the actual literary text students are expected to cite Placement: After Main Point 4 (Raja Rao's Kanthapura) |
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▶ YOUTUBE VIDEO INSERT Video Title: Raja Rao and
the Idea of India as Metaphysic Channel: A comparative literature or postcolonial studies
university channel Link: https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Raja+Rao+Kanthapura+India+is+an+idea+metaphysic Approx. Length: 10-12 minutes Why relevant: Unpacks the famous 'India is an idea, a
metaphysic' formulation with reference to Kanthapura, directly supporting the
section's central argument Placement: Immediately after the Critical Perspective
subsection, closing Part V |
Five Ways of
Understanding India
Each writer approaches the same underlying question, what does India
mean, from a different angle. The table below sets these approaches side by
side.
|
Writer |
Central
Concern |
Image of
India |
|
S.
Radhakrishnan |
Religion and
philosophy |
Spiritual and
pluralistic India |
|
S.
Radhakrishnan |
Philosophy of
idealism |
Ethical and
spiritual humanism |
|
Nirad C.
Chaudhuri |
History and
autobiography |
Historically
evolving, colonially shaped India |
|
N. Raghunathan |
Politics and
education |
Democratic and
civic India |
|
Raja Rao |
Metaphysics and
literature |
Civilisational
and philosophical India |
These five perspectives sometimes complement one another, as when
Radhakrishnan's spiritual pluralism and Raja Rao's metaphysical unity reinforce
each other, and sometimes pull in different directions, as when Chaudhuri's
historically grounded, colonially inflected India sits uneasily beside Raja
Rao's timeless civilisational India.
Critical
Conclusion
None of these answers cancels the others; each captures something the others leave out. India, on this evidence, cannot be reduced to a single definition, whether religious, historical, political or metaphysical. It is precisely the tension between these interpretations, the argument between the historian's India and the metaphysician's India, between the philosopher's pluralism and the journalist's democratic realism, that gives Indian Writing in English its enduring intellectual seriousness. To read these five answers together is to understand that defining India was never really the point; the honest, ongoing argument about what India means is the point.
References /
Further Reading
Primary Texts
Radhakrishnan,
Sarvepalli. An Idealist View of Life. George Allen & Unwin, 1932.
Chaudhuri,
Nirad C. The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian. Macmillan, 1951.
Rao,
Raja. Kanthapura. George Allen & Unwin, 1938.
Rao,
Raja. The Serpent and the Rope. John Murray, 1960.
Secondary Sources
“Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan.” Encyclopaedia Britannica,
www.britannica.com/biography/Sarvepalli-Radhakrishnan.
“An
Idealist View of Life.” eNotes, www.enotes.com/topics/an-idealist-view-life.
“Dr
Radhakrishnan: Messenger of Indian Philosophy.” The Sentinel,
www.sentinelassam.com/life/dr-radhakrishnan-messenger-of-indian-philosophy-553455.
“Nirad
C. Chaudhuri.” India Online,
www.indiaonline.in/about/personalities/writersandpoets/nirad-c-chaudhuri.
“The
Autobiography of an Unknown Indian by Nirad C. Chaudhuri.” English Notes
Helper,
englishnoteshelper.com/the-autobiography-of-an-unknown-indian-by-nirad-c-chaudhuri.html.
Hariyani,
Vaidehi. “Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (Indian Writing in English).” Vaidehi
Hariyani Blog, 26 July 2023, vaidehi09.blogspot.com.
Hariyani,
Vaidehi. “Nirad C. Chaudhuri (Indian Writing in English).” Vaidehi Hariyani
Blog, 28 July 2023, vaidehi09.blogspot.com.
Hariyani,
Vaidehi. “N. Raghunathan (Indian Writing in English).” Vaidehi Hariyani Blog,
31 July 2023, vaidehi09.blogspot.com.
Iyengar,
K. R. S. Indian Writing in English. Sterling Publishers, 1962 (course chapter
on Three Prose Writers).
Rathod,
Nilay. “Three Prose Writers: Radhakrishnan, Raghunathan and Nirad Chaudhuri.”
SlideShare, www.slideshare.net/NilayRathod3.
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